The tryptophan photoproduct 6-formylindolo[3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ) exhibits the highest aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) binding affinity reported so far. In different cells, in vitro, both extracts of UV-irradiated tryptophan and the synthesized pure compound FICZ induce a rapid and transient expression of AhR-regulated genes. The transient induction suggests that the biotransformation gene battery induced by AhR activation takes part in a metabolic degradation of the ligand, whereby a low steady-state level is regained. The down-regulation of AhR-regulated gene expression was previously shown to be dependent on cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1). Metabolism of FICZ generates five major metabolites, which appeared as three peaks (M1-M3) in the high performance liquid chromatography. The aim of the present study was to use rat liver S9 from Aroclor-pretreated rats to produce large enough quantities of FICZ metabolites for structure characterization and to determine their product precursor relationship. NMR analysis of large combined fractions of the metabolites indicated that M3 and M2 contained 2 isomers, respectively. By means of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (negative ion electrospray mode) and NMR spectroscopy (by H-1-NMR, correlation spectroscopy, and nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy techniques) five metabolites of FICZ were identified, and their structures were elucidated. The molecular weights of the two M3 isomers were 300 and both M2 and M1 compounds demonstrated molecular weights of 316, corresponding to addition of one (M3) and of two oxygen (M2 and M1), respectively. The structures were assigned as 2- and 8-hydroxy (M3), 2,10- and 4,8-dihydroxy (M2) and 2,8-dihydroxy derivatives of indolo[3,2-b] carbazole-6-carboxaldehyde (6-formylindolo[ 3,2-b] carbazole).
Acid-induced dimerizations of 3-substituted maleimides have been investigated, leading to e.g. the cyclopentindole 9 and the deeply coloured spiro compounds 24 and 25 in good yields. 3-(1H-Indol-3-yl)maleimide 6b readily gave the cycloaddition products 13-15 on treatment with appropriate dienophiles. In addition, several related 3,3-di-(1H-indol-3-yl)succinimides have been prepared and studied.
1,2-Bis(1H-indol-2-yl)ethane (9) has been prepared and converted into indolo[2,3-c]carbazole (8) using palladium acetate in refluxing acetic acid. Reaction of 9 with CoF3 in hot TFA led to isolation of cyclohept[1,2-b:5,4-b']bisindole derivatives 11 and 12, which could be elaborated into further derivatives. Treatment of 9 with orthoesters, aldehydes and ketones under acidic conditions afforded additional bisindoles containing a seven-membered ring.
The bisindolesuccinic acid methyl ester 10 was obtained by an iodine-promoted coupling of the dianion 9. The diester was converted to the N-benzylimide 12, which was oxidatively cyclized to the indolo[2,3-a]pyrrolo[3,4-c]carbazole 15. The diester 10 could be directly transformed to the known indolocarbazole diester 27 via acid-induced intramolecular cyclization in TFA. The same methodology gave arcyriaflavin A 4 from the succinimide 18b.
4-Oxo-4,5-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[2,3-c]quinoline-1-carboxylic acid ethyl ester was obtained when TosMIC was reacted with 3-methylene-oxindole acetic acid ethyl ester. An alternative synthesis to this pyrroloquinolone was performed via a reduction of a 2,3,4-trisubstituted pyrrole obtained in turn by treatment of a vinyl sulfone with ethyl isocyanoacetate under basic conditions. A beta-carboline, isomeric with the pyrroloquinolone, was synthesised utilizing a tosylimine.
Syntheses of indolo[2,3-b]carbazole-6,12-dione and the isomeric indolo[3,2-b]carbazole-6,12-dione, an extremely efficient inducer of the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor are described. Initial oxidation of the parent indolo[3,2-b]carbazole followed by several different ring-closing strategies produced the latter compound. Entries into syntheses of unsymmetrical 6,12-disubstituted indolo[2,3-b]carbazoles are also described.
The fused heterocycles benzothiopyrano[2,3-b]indol-11-one and benzopyrano[2,3-b]indol-11-one, have been prepared from methyl 3-indole carboxylate in two steps.
We report a total synthesis of the alkaloid thienodolin (1a), as well as its 5-chloro isomer 1b and its unsubstituted analogue 1c, in three steps from the corresponding oxindoles Ba-c. The preparation was achieved through an initial Vilsmeier-Haack-Arnold reaction (chloro-formylation) followed by protection at the indole nitrogen, creation of the fused thiophene ring by nucleophilic substitution at the 2-position and an intramolecular cyclization using mercaptoacetamide. This gave 1a, 1b and 1c in total yields of 42%, 35% and 37%, respectively.
Reduction of indolo[2,3-b]quinoxalines with zinc in the presence of an anhydride gave N,N-diacyl trapped 6,11-dihydroindolo[2,3-b]quinoxalines in 43-92% yields. When the reduction with zinc was performed in TFA/TFAA, an unexpected ring opened product was isolated in 49% yield. The structure of this product could be identified as 1,2-dihydro-1-trifluoroacetyl-3-[(2-trifluoroacetylamino)phenyl]quinoxal ine.
Oxidation of indoline-2-thione using p-toluenesulfonyl azide produced a modest yield of the structurally novel cyclic sulfur containing indole trimer (12). In contrast, the oxidation of oxindole with iodine instead produced an acyclic trimeric indole derivative.
This chapter discusses the progress in synthesis and chemistry of pyrroles, indoles, and related fused ring systems. Several specialized reviews on the chemistry of indoles and pyrroles have appeared during the reporting period, providing more in-depth coverage. A comprehensive review on pyrrole natural products has appeared as well as a more limited one on the synthetic chemistry involving the pyrrole natural products roseophilin and prodigiosin is illustrated in this chapter. Likewise, the synthetic efforts in the field of the pyrrole-imidazole class of alkaloids have been covered. The isolation and synthesis of indole alkaloids containing a non-rearranged monoterpenoid unit is discussed in this chapter.
Two conformationally different [1,2,7,8]tetrathiacyclododecino[4,3-b:5,6-b':10,9-b":11,12-b''']tetraind oles 9a and 9b have been isolated in good yields, and the existence of a third conformer 9c in solution was demonstrated by mass spectrometry and H-1 NMR spectroscopy. The interconversions of the tetraindoles 9a-c have also been studied. The conformation of 9b was confirmed by X-ray crystallography, while the conformations of 9a and 9b were assigned on the basis of spectroscopic data, and were also supported by molecular modelling studies. In addition, the elusive dithiin 3 was isolated and the structure was proven by X-ray crystallography.
The total synthesis of all four known rhopaladins, A-D, isolated from the Okinawan marine tunicate Rhopalaea sp., in two synthetic steps is described, involving an imidate based cyclization with tryptophan esters as the key step to afford the appropriately substituted imidazolinone unit. A short and efficient new synthesis of indol-3-yl-carbonyl nitriles from indol-3-yl-carboxaldehydes and trimethylsilyl cyanide, followed by oxidation with DDQ is also described.
The sulfonation of various 1-phenylsulfonyl-1H-pyrroles and 1-phenylsulfonyl-1H-indoles using chlorosulfonic acid in acetonitrile has been studied, leading to the development of a clean and operationally simple protocol allowing direct synthesis of the corresponding 1-phenylsulfonyl-1H-pyrrole-3-sulfonyl chlorides and 1-phenylsulfonyl-1H-indole-3-sulfonyl chlorides, respectively, both of which may be easily converted to various sulfonamide derivatives by treatment with nitrogen nucleophiles. Efficient and selective removal of the phenylsulfonyl- or tosyl groups in the sulfonamide series may be achieved under mild conditions.
The reaction of 2-lithiated benzo[b]thiophene with 8 equiv of elemental sulfur was found to give pentathiepino[6,7-b]benzo[d]thiophene. In contrast, treatment of 2-lithiated benzo[b]furan with sulfur under similar conditions produced the interesting ring system bis(benzo[4,5]-furo)[2,3-e:3',2'-g][1,2,3,4]tetrathiocine. Both of these new cyclic polysulfides were studied by X-ray crystallography. Two polymorphic forms of pentathiepino[6,7-b]benzo[d]thiophene were found, displaying similar conformations but different packing schemes, which was also evident from powder diffraction data.
The diketopiperazine derivative dipodazine (1), isolated from Penicillium dipodomyis, has been synthesized via a stereoselective aldol condensation from N-protected indole-3-carboxaldehyde and 1,4-diacetyl-2,5-piperazinedione (3) in the presence of cesium carbonate.
A short and efficient stereoselective synthesis of the indole alkaloid murrayacarine is described, including studies on its acid-induced isomerization.
The exocyclic analogue of the indole alkaloid isolated from the marine sponge Halichondria melanodocia has been prepared via olefination of a phosphonoester derived from 3-(2-bromoacyl)indole. The formation of an unexpected indolylazepine is also discussed.
The indole alkaloid barettin (with bromine in 6-position), isolated from the marine sponge Geodia Barretti, has been synthesised via a Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons type reaction from 6-bromoindole-3-carboxaldehyde to introduce the dehydro-functionality. Subsequent deprotection and cyclisation afforded the natural product in Z-conformation.
Recently, we described a new in vivo pathway in the metabolism of benzo[a]pyrene (BP) that involves an opening of the aromatic ring system. One of the products of this pathway, isolated from rat urine, was the anhydride of 7-oxo-benz[d]anthracene-3,4-dicarboxylic acid (ABADA). We have now investigated the effect of ABADA on several cellular targets, known to be important in tumor formation. ABADA was as efficient as BP-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide in inducing direct strand breaks but not alkali labile sites in DNA in HT-29 cells and exhibited weak mutagenic activity in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA 102. The cytotoxicity of ABADA to HCT 116 cells appeared to be due to apoptosis, as caspase-3 activity and poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage was observed. COX-2 promoter activity was induced by ABADA in HCT 116 cells. In conclusion, this novel metabolic pathway may also be contributing to the carcinogenicity of BP.
The reaction between 3-aminocrotonates and 3-acetonylideneoxindole in refluxing toluene resulted in 2-pyrrolo-3 '-yloxindoles in high yields (around 90%). At room temperature the 2-pyrrolo-3 '-yioxindoles exists as keto-enol tautomers. Treatment with POCl3 yielded the 2-chloro-3-pyrrolyl indole, which gave the pyrrolo annulated indolopyran-2-one upon basic hydrolysis of 2-chloro-3-pyrrolyl indole methyl ester.
3-Spiro[pyrrolidino-oxindoles] were prepared in high yields from a three-component reaction between isatin, an alpha-amino acid, and a dipolarophile. Both N-substituted and N-unsubstituted alpha-amino acids were used as the amine component.
The reactions of 2-lithiated indole and 1-methylindole with elemental sulfur have been studied, leading e.g. to a rational approach to pentathiepino[6,7-b]indoles 5 and 10. Notable amounts of the previously known tetrathiocino[5,6-b:8,7-b ' ]diindole 11 could be observed as a side reaction in the preparation of 10. Treatment of the anions of indoline-2-thiones 6 or 7 with sulfur also gave the pentathiepins 5 or 10, respectively. In addition, a convenient and clean lithiation route to indoline-2-thione (6) has been developed.
Regioselective solid-phase synthesis of N-alkylated 2-pyridones has been carried out starting from 2-halopyridines. Variously substituted 2-halopyridines were linked to a Wang resin in quantitative yields to afford 2-alkoxypyridines. The coupled products were then reacted with a variety of alkyl halides, resulting in tandem alkylation and cleavage from the resin to generate N-alkylated pyridones With no detectable traces of O-alkylated products. The scope and limitations of this exceptionally selective reaction have been studied.
A library of 6-phenylquinolin-2(1H)-ones with diversity at position I and the ortho, meta, and para positions of the pendant phenyl ring has been synthesized using solid-phase parallel synthetic techniques. A key step in the synthesis of the library is a tandem alkylation cleavage in which diversity can be introduced at position 1 simultaneously to the cleavage from the resin. The yields of this step were significantly improved over what has previously been reported by addition of cesium carbonate to scavenge the acid that is formed during the reaction. Furthermore, we have shown that the solid support linkage is tolerant to Suzuki coupling and etherification reaction conditions and that selective cleavage of the linkage can take place in the presence of esters. The resulting 6-phenylquinolin-2(1H)-one library was screened against a panel of nuclear hormone receptors (androgen, estrogen alpha and beta isoforms, glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid, and progesterone). Certain members of this library display moderate affinity for several of these receptors, and consequently, the 6-phenylquinolin-2(1H)-one core of the library may be considered a privileged structure for nuclear hormone receptors. In contrast, other members of the library display high selectivity for a particular receptor. The highest affinity ligand (9{2,1,1}) possesses an affinity of 330 nM for the androgen receptor, whereas the most selective ligand (9{2,4,1}) displays an affinity of 900 nM for the androgen receptor and a selectivity of 140-fold over the next highest affinity receptor.
A new approach to 3-(arylthio)indoles and related compounds has been developed, based on the reactions of aryl Grignard reagents or lithiated heteroaroinatics with a phenylsulfonyl-protected 3,3'-bis(indolyl) disulfide. In addition, a rational approach to the 3,3'-bis(indolyl) sulfone core of the alkaloid echinosulfone A has been accomplished, involving treatment of a 3-lithioindole with bis(phenylsulfonyl) sulfide as the key step.
In this work, we show the potent antifouling effects of two compounds, barettin (cyclo[(6-bromo-8-entryptophan)arginine]) (1), isolated as a Z/E mixture (87/13), and 8,9-dihydrobarettin (cyclo[(6-bromotryptophan)arginine]) (2), isolated from the marine sponge Geodia barretti. The compounds were isolated guided by their ability to inhibit the settlement of cyprid larvae of the barnacle Balanus improvisus, and their structures were determined by means of mass spectrometry, NMR, and quantitative amino acid analysis. The activities of these brominated diketopiperazine-like cyclic dipeptides are in the range of antifouling agents in use today, as shown by their EC50 values of 0.9 and 7.9 muM, respectively. However, contrary to today's antifouling agents, the effects of barettin and 8,9-dihydrobarettin are nontoxic and reversible. A small set of synthetic analogues, including L-arginine, L-tryptophan, 5-bromo-D,L-tryptophan, 6-bromo-D,L-tryptophan, and 6-fluoro-D,L-tryptophan, were tested for possible structure-activity relationships. None of these compounds showed any effect at a concentration of 10 muM. We hypothesize that the isolated compounds are part of the sponge's chemical defense to deter fouling organisms. This theory is supported by the fact that barettin is found in water exposed to living specimens of G. barretti in concentrations that completely inhibit barnacles from settling.
Isatogens (3-oxo-3H-indole 1-oxides) possess interesting biological properties and development of a general method to construct these derivatives has now been developed. Indolines (2,3-dihydroindoles) and isatogens have been prepared in an efficient route starting from indoles substituted in position 2. Reduction of the 2-substituted indoles was performed with tin and hydrochloric acid to give racemic indolines, which were converted to isatogens by 3-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (m-CPBA).
Various synthetic applications of 3-(cyanoacetyl)indoles, as well as syntheses of some related indoles, have been investigated. Diethyl 2-(1H-indol-3-yl)-2-oxoethylphosphonate and a methyl derivative thereof have been prepared in one step from indole. Moreover, it was demonstrated that 3-(cyanoacetyl)indoles are useful starting materials for the preparation of for example 3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-3-oxopropanamides, 3-heteroarylindoles or 3-heteroaroylindoles.
Cyanoacetic acid was activated with acetic anhydride and when heated this reagent reacted with a variety of both activated and deactivated pyrroles, indoles and aniline derivatives.
Several highly activated 2,3'-biindolyls were prepared from methyl 5,6-dimethoxyindole-2-carboxylate and oxindoles. The 2,3'-biindolyls were further transformed into a hydroxy indolo[3,2-a]carbazole and a bisindole amde.
Synthesis of the five mono- and di-hydroxylated metabolites of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor high affinity ligand 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole is described. The structures of the metabolites were unequivocally established as 2-hydroxy-, 8-hydroxy-, 2,10-dihydroxy-, 4,8-dihydroxy- and 2,8-dihydroxyindolo[3,2-b]carbazole-6-carboxaldehyde.
Three different synthetic routes to substituted 2,3'-diindolylmethanes, and the syntheses of substituted indolo[3,2-b]carbazoles are described. The first rigid proof of an acylation in the 2-position of a 1,3-unsubstituted indole is also presented in the form of an X-ray structure.
A three-step synthesis of caulersin (3) from indole-2-acetic acid methyl ester and indole-2-carbonyl chloride is described. As the spectral data of the synthetic sample differed from those reported for the natural product, the structure was determined by X-ray crystallography.
The O-nucleophilicity of basic anthranilic acid salts was documented, analyzed, and utilized in synthesis. Specifically substitutions leading to esters instead of secondary amines, and formation of anthranilic acid anhydrides were studied.
Anthranilic acid (2-aminobenzoic acid, AA) is a versatile and low cost starting material for synthesis of benzofused heterocycles. It also plays a vital part in the biosynthesis of tryptophan and its derivatives, as well as in several types of alkaloids. Therefore the chemistry of anthranilic acid is of importance in medicinal and biological chemistry. The main emphasis of this review article is on the use of anthranilic acid as a starting material for synthesis of heterocycles, but it also covers the history, synthesis and reactivity, as well as a short account of the medicinal chemistry and biochemistry of anthranilic acids.
Even though benzodiazepines have a strong position in medicinal chemistry, very few synthetic routes to 1H-1,4-benzodiazepine-3,5(2H,4H)-diones have ever been published and the claimed products have often been poorly characterized. Through the present work several 1H-1,4-benzodiazepine-3,5(2H,4H)-diones have become available from N-carbamoylmethylanthranilic acids. The required ring closures were achieved only when the amino groups of the starting materials were substituted with electron withdrawing groups such as acetyl, alkyloxycarbonyl, or nitroso. During the synthetic work a novel ring contraction rearrangement from a 1-nitroso-1H-1,4-benzodiazepine-3,5(2H,4H)-dione to a 3H-quinazoline-4-one was observed. The proposed mechanism involves elimination of HNO followed by a proton-mediated loss of CO. The 1-nitrosated 1,4-benzodiazepinediones could be separately denitrosated to the corresponding amino compounds.